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3.5 Implied Covenant of Good Faith, Fair Dealing & Indefinite Terms
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1 Introduction & FYLSE Examination Guide
1.1 FYLSE Exam Structure, Passing Standard & Administration 1.2 Study Method, Pacing & MBE-Style Technique
2 Contracts: Mutual Assent, Capacity & Contract Formation
2.1 The Offer & Objective Theory of Assent 2.2 Termination & Irrevocability of Offers 2.3 Acceptance & the Mailbox Rule 2.4 Mirror Image Rule & UCC 2-207 Battle of the Forms 2.5 Mistake in Contract Formation 2.6 Fraud, Duress, Undue Influence & Illegality 2.7 Capacity to Contract
3 Contracts: Consideration, Estoppel & Implied Obligations
3.1 Consideration & the Bargained-For Exchange 3.2 Past & Moral Consideration, Pre-Existing Duty & Modification 3.3 Promissory Estoppel & Detrimental Reliance 3.4 Implied-in-Fact Contracts & Quasi-Contract 3.5 Implied Covenant of Good Faith, Fair Dealing & Indefinite Terms
4 Contracts: Third-Party Beneficiaries, Assignment & Delegation
4.1 Third-Party Beneficiary Contracts 4.2 Assignment of Rights 4.3 Delegation of Duties
5 Contracts: Statute of Frauds, Parol Evidence & Interpretation
5.1 Statute of Frauds: Contracts Within the Statute 5.2 Satisfying the Statute: Writing, Signature & Exceptions 5.3 The Parol Evidence Rule 5.4 Contract Interpretation & Canons of Construction
6 Contracts: Performance, Conditions, UCC Warranties & Breach
6.1 Conditions: Express, Constructive & Excuse 6.2 Substantial Performance vs. Perfect Tender 6.3 Cure, Rejection, Revocation & Installment Contracts 6.4 UCC Article 2 Warranties & Risk of Loss 6.5 Anticipatory Repudiation & Insecurity
7 Contracts: Remedies, Discharge & Changed Circumstances
7.1 Expectation Damages & Their Limitations 7.2 Reliance, Restitution & Liquidated Damages 7.3 Specific Performance & Injunctive Relief 7.4 UCC Article 2 Buyer's and Seller's Remedies 7.5 Impossibility, Impracticability & Frustration of Purpose 7.6 Discharge by Agreement: Rescission, Novation & Accord and Satisfaction
8 Criminal Law: Principles of Criminal Liability & Mens Rea
8.1 Actus Reus, Voluntary Acts & Omissions 8.2 Criminal Causation & Intervening Causes 8.3 Common Law & Model Penal Code Mens Rea 8.4 Mistake of Fact, Mistake of Law & Concurrence
9 Criminal Law: Inchoate Offenses & Accomplice Liability
9.1 Criminal Attempt & Impossibility 9.2 Solicitation & the Merger Doctrine 9.3 Conspiracy & Merger Doctrine 9.4 Accomplice Liability: Actus Reus & Mens Rea 9.5 Scope of Accomplice Liability, Withdrawal & Parties to Crime
10 Criminal Law: Homicide & Crimes Against the Person
10.1 Common Law Murder & Malice Aforethought 10.2 Degrees of Murder, Premeditation & Deliberation 10.3 The Felony Murder Rule & Its Limitations 10.4 Voluntary & Involuntary Manslaughter 10.5 Non-Homicide Crimes Against the Person
11 Criminal Law: Property Crimes, Theft & Habitation
11.1 Common Law Larceny 11.2 Embezzlement & False Pretenses 11.3 Robbery & Extortion 11.4 Receiving Stolen Property 11.5 Burglary 11.6 Arson
12 Criminal Law: Defenses: Capacity, Justification & Excuse
12.1 Insanity: The Four Legal Tests 12.2 Intoxication, Diminished Capacity & Infancy 12.3 Self-Defense & Defense of Others 12.4 Defense of Property, Habitation & Law Enforcement Privileges 12.5 Duress & Necessity 12.6 Entrapment & Mistake as an Excuse
13 Torts: Intentional Torts to Persons & Property
13.1 Intent, Motive & Incapacity in Intentional Torts 13.2 Transferred Intent 13.3 Battery & Assault 13.4 False Imprisonment 13.5 Trespass to Land 13.6 Trespass to Chattels & Conversion
14 Torts: Privileges & Defenses to Intentional Torts
14.1 Consent: Express, Implied & Capacity 14.2 Exceeding & Vitiating Consent 14.3 Self-Defense & Defense of Others (Tort) 14.4 Defense of Property & Recapture of Chattels 14.5 Public & Private Necessity 14.6 The Shopkeeper's Privilege
15 Torts: Negligence — Duty of Care & Breach
15.1 Duty of Care & the Foreseeable Plaintiff 15.2 Affirmative Duties to Act & Special Relationships 15.3 Standard of Care: The Reasonable Person & Children 15.4 Professional Negligence, Informed Consent & Negligence Per Se 15.5 Land Possessor Liability & Premises Duties 15.6 Breach of Duty & Res Ipsa Loquitur
16 Torts: Causation, Defenses, Multiple Tortfeasors, Wrongful Death & Damages
16.1 Cause in Fact & Multiple Actors 16.2 Proximate Cause & Intervening Forces 16.3 Contributory, Comparative Negligence & Assumption of Risk 16.4 Joint and Several Liability, Contribution & Indemnity 16.5 Vicarious Liability & Non-Delegable Duties 16.6 Wrongful Death & Survival Actions 16.7 Statute of Limitations & Claim Accrual 16.8 Tort Damages: Compensatory, Nominal, Punitive & Mitigation
17 Torts: Strict Liability & Products Liability
17.1 Strict Liability for Animals 17.2 Abnormally Dangerous Activities & Scope of Risk 17.3 Strict Products Liability & Defect Categories 17.4 Products Liability Under Negligence, Warranty & Misrepresentation 17.5 Defenses to Products Liability
18 Torts: Emotional Distress, Defamation, Privacy & Economic Torts
18.1 Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress 18.2 Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress 18.3 Common Law Defamation: Elements, Libel & Slander 18.4 Constitutional Limits, Privileges & Defenses to Defamation 18.5 Invasion of Privacy 18.6 Nuisance & Economic Torts
3.5 Implied Covenant of Good Faith, Fair Dealing & Indefinite Terms
Key Takeaways Explain This Topic AI
Every contract governed by the common law (Restatement § 205) or the UCC (UCC § 1-304) contains an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing that prevents a party from destroying the other party's right to receive the fruits of the contract.
Good faith requires honesty in fact (subjective) and the observance of reasonable commercial standards of fair dealing (objective), limiting arbitrary discretion and satisfaction clauses.
Requirements and output contracts under UCC § 2-306 are supported by consideration and satisfy definiteness, provided demands or tenders do not unreasonably disproportionately exceed estimates or normal historical baselines.
While common law requires reasonable certainty of all essential terms to avoid fatal indefiniteness, UCC § 2-204(3) preserves sales contracts with open terms if the parties intended to contract and a reasonably certain basis exists for granting a remedy.
The UCC provides statutory gap fillers for open price (reasonable market price at delivery, § 2-305), delivery location (seller's place of business, § 2-308), payment timing (due upon receipt, § 2-310), and performance duration (reasonable time, § 2-309).
Last updated: September 2026
Implied Covenant of Good Faith, Fair Dealing & Indefinite Terms
Quick Answer: Under both the common law (Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 205) and the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC § 1-304), every contract imposes an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing. This duty requires honesty in fact and the observance of reasonable commercial standards, preventing parties from undermining the core benefits of their bargain. It governs discretionary powers, satisfaction clauses, and output/requirements contracts under UCC § 2-306. Furthermore, while the common law invalidates contracts for fatal indefiniteness when essential terms are absent, UCC § 2-204(3) enforces agreements with open terms using statutory gap fillers for price (§ 2-305), delivery (§ 2-308), and payment (§ 2-310), so long as the parties intended to contract and a quantity is specified.
The Implied Covenant of Good Faith and Fair Dealing
The implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing is an indispensable feature of modern American contract law:
Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 205: "Every contract imposes upon each party a duty of good faith and fair dealing in its performance and its enforcement."
UCC § 1-304: "Every contract or duty within [the Uniform Commercial Code] imposes an obligation of good faith in its performance and enforcement."
The Dual Standard of Good Faith
Under UCC § 1-201(b)(20) , "good faith" comprises both a subjective and an objective component:
Honesty in Fact (Subjective Standard): Pure heart, empty head. A party must act with sincere, genuine intentions, without deceit, subterfuge, or malicious designs.
Reasonable Commercial Standards of Fair Dealing (Objective Standard): The party must adhere to prevailing commercial standards and norms of fairness recognized within the particular trade or industry.
Operational Scope of the Covenant
The implied covenant does not create independent, floating substantive duties that contradict express terms, nor does it force a party to act as a fiduciary or sacrifice its legitimate commercial advantages. Rather, the covenant prevents a party from exercising contract discretion arbitrarily, maliciously, or to recapture opportunities surrendered at formation.
Discretionary Powers & Satisfaction Clauses
Contracts frequently grant one party discretionary authority, such as the power to approve specifications, adjust schedules, or accept performance upon personal satisfaction. The implied covenant prevents these powers from rendering promises illusory.
The Doctrine of Wood v. Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon (1917)
In Wood v. Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon , a prominent fashion creator gave Wood the exclusive agency right to market and place endorsements on her designs for one year, in exchange for half of all profits. Lady Duff-Gordon broke the agreement by placing endorsements herself without Wood's knowledge, arguing that the contract lacked consideration because Wood never expressly promised to do anything. Judge Cardozo held that although the contract did not contain an explicit promise by Wood to market the goods, the exclusive agency was "instinct with an obligation" requiring Wood to use reasonable efforts to bring profits into existence. This implied duty supplied valid consideration.
Satisfaction Clauses: Objective vs. Subjective Standards
When a contract conditions payment or performance upon one party's "satisfaction," courts categorize the condition based on the nature of the performance:
Classification Type of Subject Matter Standard Applied Enforceability Threshold
Objective Satisfaction Standard Commercial value, operative fitness, mechanical utility, construction, structural repair. Reasonable Person Standard: Would a reasonable person in the buyer's position be satisfied with the performance? Rejection is a breach if the work conforms to objective industry specifications, even if the buyer subjectively dislikes it.
Subjective Satisfaction Standard Personal taste, fancy, art, aesthetics, portraits, tailored clothing. Good Faith Standard: Is the promisor honestly and genuinely dissatisfied? Dissatisfaction bars recovery even if unreasonable, provided it is sincere and not feigned to escape an undesirable bargain.
Output and Requirements Contracts (UCC § 2-306)
Under early common law, agreements where a buyer agreed to buy "all I require" or a seller agreed to sell "all I produce" were often challenged for lack of mutuality or fatal indefiniteness because no numerical quantity was fixed. UCC § 2-306(1) explicitly validates these agreements. UCC § 2-306(1) Definitions:
- Requirements Contract: Buyer agrees to purchase 100% of its actual business needs from Seller.
- Output Contract: Seller agrees to sell 100% of its actual business production to Buyer.
Legal Consideration & Exclusivity
Requirements and output contracts satisfy consideration because of exclusivity : the buyer forfeits the legal right to purchase from other sellers, and the seller forfeits the legal right to sell to other buyers.
The Unreasonable Disproportion Limitation
To prevent abuse, UCC § 2-306(1) imposes two strict statutory restrictions on quantity:
Actual Good Faith: The quantity must reflect the actual, good-faith output of the seller or requirements of the buyer.
No Unreasonable Disproportion: No quantity may be tendered or demanded that is unreasonably disproportionate to:
Any stated estimate in the contract; or
In the absence of a stated estimate, normal or comparable prior output or requirements .
Business Drops and Cessation
Legitimate Business Drop (Good Faith): If a buyer experiences a genuine collapse in customer demand, a plant shutdown, or legitimate insolvency, reducing its requirements to zero does not breach the contract, provided the drop is motivated by bona fide business reasons.
Bad-Faith Evasion: A buyer cannot cease ordering simply because the market price dropped and purchasing from another supplier under the table or changing corporate identity would be more profitable.
Indefinite Terms: Common Law Fatal Indefiniteness vs. UCC Open Terms
Contract formation requires that the terms of the agreement be reasonably certain.
The Common Law Rule: Fatal Indefiniteness
At common law, a contract must be reasonably definite as to all essential terms :
- Parties
- Subject Matter
- Time for Performance
- Price
If an essential term is completely omitted or left to future negotiation ("agreement to agree"), the common law traditionally deems the agreement void for fatal indefiniteness . Under modern common law (Restatement (Second) § 33), terms are sufficiently certain if they provide a basis for determining the existence of a breach and for giving an appropriate remedy.
The UCC Article 2 Rule: Liberal Formation & Open Terms
Under UCC § 2-204(3) , commercial reality takes precedence over strict formalistic rules:
UCC § 2-204(3): "Even though one or more terms are left open a contract for sale does not fail for indefiniteness if the parties have intended to make a contract and there is a reasonably certain basis for giving an appropriate remedy."
Under Article 2, the sole indispensable term is Quantity (except in requirements/output contracts under § 2-306). If quantity is omitted in a standard sales agreement, the contract fails because a court has no basis for calculating damages. All other terms—including price, delivery location, and payment timing—can be supplied by statutory gap fillers.
UCC Statutory Gap Fillers
When parties intend to form an Article 2 contract but leave terms open, the UCC automatically supplies default gap fillers:
1. Open Price Term (UCC § 2-305)
If the parties conclude a contract without settling the price, or agree that price will be agreed upon later and fail to agree, the price is a reasonable price at the time for delivery . If the price is to be fixed by one party, that party must fix the price in good faith .
2. Place of Delivery (UCC § 2-308)
Unless otherwise agreed:
The place for delivery of goods is the seller's place of business (or the seller's residence if they have no business);
If identified goods are known by both parties to be in some other place at the time of contracting, that other place is the place for delivery.
3. Time of Payment (UCC § 2-310)
Unless otherwise agreed, payment is due at the time and place at which the buyer is to receive the goods , even though the place of shipment is the place of delivery (e.g., in shipment contracts).
4. Time for Performance & Termination (UCC § 2-309)
Time for Shipment/Delivery: If not specified, the time for shipment or delivery is a reasonable time (§ 2-309(1)).
Contract of Indefinite Duration: A contract that provides for successive performances but is indefinite in duration is valid for a reasonable time , but may be terminated at will by either party at any time (§ 2-309(2)), subject to the requirement of reasonable notification (§ 2-309(3)).
Summary Table: Statutory Gap Fillers
Missing Term Common Law Treatment UCC Statutory Gap Filler
Quantity Must be ascertainable or fatal indefiniteness. Indispensable. Contract fails unless output/requirements (§ 2-306).
Price Traditionally fatal; modernly reasonable value if intent clear. UCC § 2-305: Reasonable price at the time for delivery.
Place of Delivery Location of seller or agreed job site. UCC § 2-308: Seller's place of business or residence.
Time of Payment Concurrent condition with completion. UCC § 2-310: Due at time and place buyer receives goods.
Duration / Termination Terminable at will with reasonable notice. UCC § 2-309: Valid for reasonable time; terminable at will upon reasonable notice.
- FYLSE Exam Scenarios & Doctrinal Traps
- Scenario 1: The Arbitrary Output Surge
Hypothetical: A solar panel manufacturer entered into an output contract with an electric utility, agreeing to sell "all solar panels manufactured at its Fremont plant for three years." The contract estimated output at 10,000 units annually. In year two, a foreign competitor collapsed, and market panel prices skyrocketed. The manufacturer added three extra factory shifts, leased an adjoining building, and tendered 35,000 panels to the utility. The utility accepted 12,000 panels and rejected the remainder. Analysis: Under UCC § 2-306(1), the utility did not breach. Tendering 35,000 panels against a stated estimate of 10,000 is unreasonably disproportionate . The seller's tender exceeded normal commercial baselines and was not within the contemplated scope of the output bargain.
Scenario 2: The Open Price Custom Machinery Contract
Hypothetical: An agricultural processor ordered 20 custom sorting conveyors from a machinery fabricator. The purchase order explicitly described the mechanical specifications and set a delivery date, but stated: "Price to be determined by mutual agreement upon delivery." The fabricator constructed and delivered the conveyors. The processor refused to accept delivery, arguing that the contract was void for lack of an agreed price. Analysis: Under UCC § 2-204(3) and § 2-305, the agreement is an enforceable contract for the sale of goods. The parties intended to contract, and the conveyors were specified and delivered. The UCC gap filler supplies a reasonable market price at the time of delivery .