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3.2 Relative Clauses, Auxiliary Verbs & Structural Linkers
Cambridge B2 First Exam
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1 Chapter 1: Exam Architecture, Cambridge English Scale & Administration
1.1 Exam Architecture & CEFR B2 Benchmark 1.2 The Cambridge English Scale, Subscale Scoring & Results Profiles 1.3 Delivery Formats: Computer-Based vs. Paper-Based Testing & Interface Strategy 1.4 Registration, Exam-Day Regulations, Permitted Materials & Timing Rules
2 Chapter 2: Reading & Use of English — Part 1: Multiple-Choice Cloze
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3 Chapter 3: Reading & Use of English — Part 2: Open Cloze
3.1 Part 2 Grammar Focus: Determiners, Pronouns & Quantifiers 3.2 Relative Clauses, Auxiliary Verbs & Structural Linkers 3.3 Fixed Grammatical Patterns & Prepositional Phrases
4 Chapter 4: Reading & Use of English — Part 3: Word Formation
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3.2 Relative Clauses, Auxiliary Verbs & Structural Linkers
Key Takeaways Explain This Topic AI
Defining relative clauses identify the antecedent and permit 'that', while non-defining relative clauses provide parenthetical information, require commas, and strictly prohibit 'that'.
Prepositions placed immediately before a relative pronoun require 'which' for things and 'whom' for people (e.g., 'in which', 'to whom'), ruling out 'that' or 'who'.
Primary and modal auxiliaries complete compound verb tenses, voice, passives, and trigger syntactic ellipsis ('so do I') or negative inversions ('seldom had they').
Structural linkers differ by syntactic complementation: 'despite' and 'in spite of' govern noun phrases or gerunds, whereas 'although' and 'even though' govern finite clauses with subject and verb.
Last updated: September 2026
3.2 Relative Clauses, Auxiliary Verbs & Structural Linkers
Quick Answer: Relative clauses, auxiliary verbs, and structural linkers constitute the core syntactic machinery of Cambridge B2 First Part 2. Remember the golden comma rule: never use that in a non-defining relative clause preceded by a comma —use which for things or who for people. If a preposition directly precedes the relative pronoun, you must use which or whom ( in which , to whom ). For discourse linkers, always check the grammatical complement: despite and in spite of are followed by a noun phrase or gerund (-ing) , whereas although and even though require a full finite clause with a subject and verb .
Relative Clauses: The Syntactic Hierarchy and Punctuation Rules
Relative clauses link two ideas by using a relative pronoun to refer back to a preceding noun (the antecedent ). In Part 2, relative pronouns are tested relentlessly because a single punctuation mark or preposition completely alters the grammatically correct word.
The Inventory of Relative Pronouns
- Pronoun Antecedent Reference Function in Relative Clause Defining vs. Non-defining
- Who Persons Subject or Object Both (preceded by comma or not)
- Whom Persons Object (formal; mandatory after prepositions) Both (standard after to, with, of, by )
- Which Things, animals, ideas, or whole clauses Subject or Object Both (mandatory after commas or prepositions)
- That Persons or things Subject or Object Defining clauses ONLY (never after comma or prep)
- Whose Persons, organizations, or objects Possessive determiner Both ( whose members , whose walls )
- Where Places Adverbial relative ( in which ) Both ( the town where he was born )
- When Times Adverbial relative ( at which ) Both ( a period when resources were scarce )
- Why Reasons Adverbial relative ( for which ) Defining ( the reason why he resigned )
- Defining vs. Non-Defining Clauses: The Comma Rule
Understanding the punctuation surrounding a gap is crucial:
Defining (Restrictive) Relative Clauses: These provide essential information identifying exactly which person or thing is being discussed. They do not take commas, and the relative pronoun that can freely replace who or which :
"The manuscript that / which was discovered in the cave dates back to antiquity."
Non-Defining (Non-Restrictive) Relative Clauses: These provide supplementary, parenthetical information that could be omitted without altering the core identity of the noun. They must be separated by commas :
"The library, which was constructed in 1892, houses over a million volumes."
The Cardinal Rule: In Cambridge B2 First Part 2, NEVER write that after a comma . If a gap follows a comma and refers back to an inanimate object, institution, or whole proposition, the only grammatically acceptable answer is which .
Prepositional Placement: Pied-Piping vs. Preposition Stranding
In informal spoken English, prepositions are often stranded at the end of a clause ( "the house that we lived in" ). However, Part 2 texts are formal and semi-formal written texts, where prepositions are positioned immediately before the relative pronoun (a linguistic phenomenon known as pied-piping ).
When a preposition immediately precedes the relative pronoun, strict grammatical restrictions apply:
Inanimate Antecedents: You must use which ( in which , at which , for which , by which , from which , of which ).
- "The archaeological expedition uncovered a tomb in which several royal artifacts were preserved."
- Incorrect: *a tomb in that...* or *a tomb in where...*
Human Antecedents: You must use whom ( to whom , with whom , by whom , for whom ).
- "The ambassador, to whom the letter was addressed, declined to comment."
- Incorrect: *to who* or *to that*
- Possessive Whose and Nominal Relative What
Two specialized relative pronouns appear with high frequency in Part 2:
Whose (Possession): Many candidates believe whose can only refer to humans. In B2 First, examiners frequently use whose to indicate possession for institutions, countries, or inanimate objects:
- "A multinational enterprise whose headquarters are located in Geneva..."
- "A rare celestial event whose origins remain mysterious..."
What (Nominal Relative): What is unique because it includes its own antecedent; it is equivalent to the thing that or that which :
" What surprised the researchers was the extraordinary durability of the material." (Notice there is no noun before what ).
Sentential Which : In contrast to what , which can refer back to an entire preceding clause or situation:
- "The flights were canceled due to volcanic ash, which caused widespread chaos across the continent."
- Auxiliary and Modal Verbs in Structural Context
Auxiliary verbs complete verb tenses, voice, and modality. In Part 2, examiners systematically gap the auxiliary rather than the main participle.
1. Primary Auxiliaries: Be, Have, Do
Forms of Be : Tested in progressive aspects ( was running , is being examined ) and passive constructions ( was discovered , has been verified ).
Example: "The ancient ruins were being systematically excavated when the discovery occurred."
Forms of Have : Tested in perfect aspects ( has developed , had disappeared , having finished ).
Example: "The species had already vanished before conservation efforts were mobilized."
Emphatic Do : Used in affirmative clauses to add rhetorical or emphatic weight:
- "Although many doubted his hypothesis, the experiments did prove him right in the end."
- 2. Modal Auxiliaries and Past Deductions
Modal auxiliaries ( can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought ) modify the speaker's stance toward possibility, necessity, or obligation:
Ought to: The only modal verb that incorporates the particle to into its base syntactic form. If you see a gap before to + infinitive expressing obligation or advisability, consider ought :
"Citizens ought to have been informed about the pending water restrictions."
Used to: Indicating past habitual actions or states no longer true ( "He used to work as a cartographer" ).
Past Modals of Deduction: Structures evaluating past actions:
- must have + past participle (certainty that something happened)
- can't / couldn't have + past participle (certainty that something was impossible)
- might / may / could have + past participle (speculation about past possibilities)
- should / ought to have + past participle (unfulfilled obligation or expectation)
- 3. Ellipsis, Additive Concord, and Inversion
Auxiliary verbs play a pivotal role in elliptical structures that avoid repeating full verb phrases:
- Affirmative Short Agreement: So + Auxiliary + Subject
- "The first experiment yielded unexpected results, and so did the subsequent trials."
- Negative Short Agreement: Neither / Nor + Auxiliary + Subject
- "The government did not anticipate the financial crisis, and neither / nor did leading economists."
Negative Adverbial Inversion: When restrictive or negative adverbs open a clause, the subject and auxiliary must invert:
- "Rarely have scientists witnessed such rapid ecological regeneration."
- "Seldom did she permit personal feelings to interfere with her professional duties."
- "No sooner had the curtain fallen than the audience erupted into applause."
- "Hardly / Scarcely had they embarked on their voyage when the storm struck."
- Discourse Markers and Conjunctions: Clausal vs. Prepositional
Perhaps the single highest-scoring concept on Part 2 is recognizing whether a linker introduces a finite clause or a noun phrase .
The Concession Matrix: Although vs. Despite / In Spite Of
Examine the syntactic complementation required by contrasting linkers:
Linker Grammatical Category What Follows the Linker? Correct Example
Although / Even though / Though Conjunction Finite Clause (Subject + inflected Verb) " Although the weather was treacherous, they reached the peak."
Despite Preposition Noun Phrase, Gerund ( -ing ), or the fact that " Despite the treacherous weather, they reached the peak."
In spite of Prepositional phrase Noun Phrase, Gerund ( -ing ), or the fact that " In spite of the treacherous weather, they reached the peak."
Whereas / While Conjunction Finite Clause (Direct contrast between two facts) "Gold is malleable, whereas iron is comparatively rigid."
However / Nevertheless Conjunctive Adverb Followed by a comma; links two independent sentences "The weather was treacherous. However , they persevered."
The Anatomy of the Part 2 Despite / Spite Trap
Cambridge examiners exploit candidate confusion between despite and in spite of :
Rule 1: Despite is a standalone preposition. It is never followed by of . Writing *despite of the rain* is a fatal error.
Rule 2: In spite is incomplete without of . In Part 2, examiners will frequently write:
- "_____ spite of the obstacles, the project was finished." → \rightarrow → Fill In
- "In _____ of the obstacles, the project was finished." → \rightarrow → Fill spite
- "In spite _____ the obstacles, the project was finished." → \rightarrow → Fill of
Rule 3: If you see the fact that following the gap, look for a preposition of concession:
- " Despite the fact that they lacked funding, they succeeded."
- Cause, Reason, and Conditional Linkers
Because vs. Because of: Because is a conjunction introducing a finite clause ( "because the engine failed" ). Because of is a preposition governing a noun phrase ( "because of engine failure" ).
Due to / Owing to: Prepositional linkers governing noun phrases ( "due to unforeseen delays" ).
Unless: A conditional conjunction meaning if... not ( "Unless prompt action is taken, the ecosystem will collapse" ).
Provided / Providing (that) & As long as: Conditional linkers expressing necessary prerequisites ( "You may borrow the equipment, provided that you return it promptly" ).
Otherwise: Links clauses by expressing an adverse hypothetical consequence ( "You must wear protective goggles; otherwise, injury may result" ).