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11.1 Earth's Interior, Plate Tectonics, and Geological Processes
California Subject Examinations for Teachers CSET
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11.1 Earth's Interior, Plate Tectonics, and Geological Processes 11.2 Atmospheric Structure, Hydrology, Weather Systems, and Climate 11.3 Earth's Water: Oceans, Estuaries, Freshwater Systems, and Tidal Dynamics 11.4 Earth-Sun-Moon Dynamics, the Solar System, and the Universe
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11.1 Earth's Interior, Plate Tectonics, and Geological Processes
Key Takeaways Explain This Topic AI
Earth's structure is categorized by chemical composition (crust, mantle, core) and mechanical behavior (brittle lithosphere, ductile asthenosphere, solid mesosphere, liquid outer core, and solid inner core).
Plate tectonics is driven by mantle convection, ridge push, and slab pull, unifying Wegener's continental drift hypothesis with Hess's seafloor spreading and paleomagnetic reversal evidence.
The three primary plate boundary classes—divergent, convergent (oceanic-continental, oceanic-oceanic, continental-continental), and transform—produce distinct topographic features, volcanic behaviors, and seismic profiles.
Seismic body waves differentiate Earth's interior: longitudinal P-waves travel through solids and liquids, whereas transverse S-waves only propagate through solids, creating an S-wave shadow zone that proves Earth possesses a liquid outer core.
The rock cycle is a dynamic, continuous transformation among igneous (intrusive vs. extrusive), sedimentary (clastic, chemical, biochemical), and metamorphic (foliated vs. non-foliated) rocks driven by tectonic and surface weathering processes.
Last updated: August 2026
11.1 Earth's Interior, Plate Tectonics, and Geological Processes
CSET Focus: California Subject Examinations for Teachers (CSET) Multiple Subjects Subtest II (Science and Mathematics) requires candidates to demonstrate rigorous subject matter competence in Earth systems science. You will be evaluated on your understanding of Earth's mechanical and compositional layers, the geodynamic forces driving plate tectonics, seismic wave propagation and hazard mitigation, magma chemistry and volcanism, mineral identification criteria, the rock cycle transformation pathways, and mechanical versus chemical surface processes.
1. Earth's Interconnected Spheres and Layered Internal Structure
Earth functions as a complex, closed thermodynamic system composed of four major dynamic, interacting subsystems or spheres :
Geosphere: The solid rocky portion of Earth, extending from the surface crust down to the metallic center of the inner core.
Hydrosphere: All liquid water, ice, and vapor across oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, ice caps, and subterranean aquifers (covering approximately 71 % 71\% 71% of Earth's surface).
Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and greenhouse gases held by gravity around the planet.
Biosphere: All living organisms across terrestrial, aquatic, and subterranean habitats, inextricably linked with the geosphere through biochemical and nutrient cycles. ┌────────────────┐
- │ ATMOSPHERE │
- └───────┬────────┘
- │
- ┌──────────────────┼──────────────────┐
- │ │ │
- ▼ ▼ ▼
- ┌────────────────┐ ┌────────────────┐ ┌────────────────┐
- │ HYDROSPHERE │◄─┼─► BIOSPHERE │◄─┼─► GEOSPHERE │
- └────────────────┘ └────────────────┘ └────────────────┘
- Compositional (Chemical) Layers vs. Mechanical (Physical) Layers
Geophysicists classify Earth's internal architecture along two distinct dimensions: chemical composition (what the rocks are made of) and mechanical properties (how the rocks deform under stress and temperature):
Classification Scheme Layer Name Depth / Thickness Primary Chemical Composition / Mineral State Physical Behavior & Density
Compositional Continental Crust 30 – 70 km 30\text{--}70\text{ km} 30 – 70 km Felsic granitic rock rich in silica and aluminum ( sial ) Low density ( ≈ 2.7 g/cm 3 \approx 2.7\text{ g/cm}^3 ≈ 2.7 g/cm 3 ); buoyant, ancient (up to 4.0 Ga 4.0\text{ Ga} 4.0 Ga )
Compositional Oceanic Crust 5 – 10 km 5\text{--}10\text{ km} 5 – 10 km Mafic basaltic rock rich in silica and magnesium ( sima ) Higher density ( ≈ 3.0 g/cm 3 \approx 3.0\text{ g/cm}^3 ≈ 3.0 g/cm 3 ); thin, geologically young ( ≤ 200 Ma \le 200\text{ Ma} ≤ 200 Ma )
Compositional Mantle 10 – 2,900 km 10\text{--}2{,}900\text{ km} 10 – 2 , 900 km Ultramafic silicate rock ( peridotite ), rich in iron and magnesium Solid rock under intense heat/pressure; density ≈ 3.3 – 5.7 g/cm 3 \approx 3.3\text{--}5.7\text{ g/cm}^3 ≈ 3.3 – 5.7 g/cm 3 ; 84 % 84\% 84% Earth's volume
Compositional Core 2,900 – 6,371 km 2{,}900\text{--}6{,}371\text{ km} 2 , 900 – 6 , 371 km Metallic alloy ( 85 % Fe 85\%\text{ Fe} 85% Fe , 10 % Ni 10\%\text{ Ni} 10% Ni , trace light elements) Extreme density ( ≈ 10 – 13 g/cm 3 \approx 10\text{--}13\text{ g/cm}^3 ≈ 10 – 13 g/cm 3 ); source of planetary gravitational mass
Mechanical Lithosphere 0 – 100 km 0\text{--}100\text{ km} 0 – 100 km Entire crust plus uppermost rigid mantle Cold, rigid, brittle solid; fractured into moving tectonic plates
Mechanical Asthenosphere 100 – 660 km 100\text{--}660\text{ km} 100 – 660 km Upper mantle silicate peridotite High temperature/pressure; semi-fluid, plastic ductile solid that flows slowly
Mechanical Mesosphere 660 – 2,900 km 660\text{--}2{,}900\text{ km} 660 – 2 , 900 km Lower mantle silicate rock Solid, rigid rock under immense confining lithostatic pressure
Mechanical Outer Core 2,900 – 5,150 km 2{,}900\text{--}5{,}150\text{ km} 2 , 900 – 5 , 150 km Molten, liquid iron-nickel alloy Liquid state; vigorous thermal convection and Earth's spin drive the geodynamo
Mechanical Inner Core 5,150 – 6,371 km 5{,}150\text{--}6{,}371\text{ km} 5 , 150 – 6 , 371 km Solid metallic iron-nickel sphere Solid due to hyper-extreme pressure ( > 3.3 × 10 6 atm >3.3\times 10^6\text{ atm} > 3.3 × 1 0 6 atm ); temp > 5,500 ∘ C >5{,}500^\circ\text{C} > 5 , 50 0 ∘ C
The Geodynamo and Earth's Magnetosphere
Because the liquid iron-nickel outer core is an electrical conductor undergoing turbulent thermal convection while Earth rotates on its axis, it operates as a self-sustaining geodynamo . This electrical motion generates Earth's geomagnetic field (magnetosphere), which projects thousands of kilometers into space. The magnetosphere deflects lethal ionizing solar wind and cosmic rays, preserving Earth's atmosphere and enabling biological life.
2. Plate Tectonics Theory and Driving Mechanisms
Plate Tectonics is the unifying paradigm of modern geology, explaining earthquakes, mountain building (orogeny), volcanism, and the geographic distribution of continents and ocean basins.
The Historical Evolution: Continental Drift to Seafloor Spreading
Alfred Wegener's Continental Drift Hypothesis (1912): Wegener proposed that all modern continents were once conjoined in a single supercontinent named Pangaea (~300–200 million years ago) that subsequently fragmented and drifted across ocean basins. Wegener provided four critical lines of empirical evidence:
Continental Jigsaw Fit: The striking geographic congruity of continental margins (e.g., the coastline of eastern South America fitting snugly into western Africa).
Fossil Correlation: Identical fossil remains of non-swimming, freshwater organisms found on widely separated continents (e.g., the aquatic reptile Mesosaurus in South America and southern Africa; the seed fern Glossopteris across South America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia; the land reptiles Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus ).
Geological Rock Strata and Mountain Belts: Continuity of matching rock sequences, stratigraphy, and ancient orogenic belts across the Atlantic (e.g., the Appalachian Mountains of North America aligning precisely with the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland and Scandinavia).
Paleoclimatic Indicators: Glacial striations, tillites, and grooved bedrock in modern equatorial regions (southern India, central Africa) alongside ancient tropical coal swamps in polar Antarctica.
Rejection by Early Geologists: Wegener could not explain how massive granitic continents could plow through rigid oceanic basalt, lacking a plausible physical driving mechanism.
Harry Hess and Seafloor Spreading (1960s): Hess synthesized sonar bathymetry mapping of the ocean floor, discovering the 65,000 km 65{,}000\text{ km} 65 , 000 km -long submarine Mid-Ocean Ridge system. Hess hypothesized that new oceanic crust forms continuously along ridge crests as magma upwells from the mantle, cools, and is pushed laterally away.
Paleomagnetic Reversals (Vine-Matthews-Morley Hypothesis): As basaltic lava cools below the Curie point ( ≈ 580 ∘ C \approx 580^\circ\text{C} ≈ 58 0 ∘ C ), iron-bearing magnetite crystals align with Earth's prevailing magnetic field, locking in a permanent paleomagnetic record. Symmetrical "zebra-stripe" patterns of normal and reversed magnetic polarities flanking mid-ocean ridges provided definitive empirical proof of seafloor spreading and confirmed that oceanic crust gets progressively older farther from the ridge.
The Three Driving Forces of Plate Motion [Elevated Ridge Crest] ──(Ridge Push)──► [Lithospheric Plate] ──(Slab Pull)──► [Subduction Trench]
- ▲
- │ (Basal Traction)
- [Mantle Convection Cells]
1. Mantle Convection Currents: Radioactive decay of unstable isotopes ( 40 K ^{40}\text{K} 40 K , 238 U ^{238}\text{U} 238 U , 232 Th ^{232}\text{Th} 232 Th ) within the mantle and primordial residual heat generate slow thermal convection cells in the asthenosphere, transferring thermal energy toward the lithosphere.
2. Ridge Push: Mid-ocean ridges stand 2 – 3 km 2\text{--}3\text{ km} 2 – 3 km higher than surrounding abyssal plains due to thermal buoyancy. Gravity exerts a lateral downslope force on the elevated lithosphere, driving plates away from the spreading axis.
3. Slab Pull (Dominant Driving Mechanism): As oceanic lithosphere moves away from the ridge, it cools, accumulates dense mantle lithosphere beneath it, and becomes denser than the underlying asthenosphere. At subduction zones, the cold, dense leading edge sinks gravitationally into the mantle, pulling the entire trailing tectonic plate behind it.
3. Plate Boundary Typologies and Geological Landforms
Earth's lithosphere is fragmented into approximately a dozen major and numerous minor tectonic plates that interact along three fundamental boundary classes:
Plate Boundary Type Stress Regime Primary Kinematics & Motion Characteristic Geological Landforms & Features Global Geographic Exemplars
Divergent (Oceanic) Tension (pulling apart) Seafloor spreading; upwelling basaltic magma creates new oceanic lithosphere Mid-ocean ridges, central rift valleys, hydrothermal vents ("black smokers"), pillow basalts, shallow earthquakes Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise
Divergent (Continental) Tension (rifting) Continental crust stretches, fractures into grabens, and thins Rift valleys, basaltic fissure eruptions, linear lakes, developing new ocean basins East African Rift System, Red Sea, Basin and Range Province
Convergent (Oceanic-Continental) Compression (pushing together) Dense oceanic plate subducts beneath buoyant continental plate Deep oceanic trench, Wadati-Benioff zone (deepening earthquake foci), continental volcanic arc , intermediate/felsic explosive volcanism The Cascade Range (Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Shasta), The Andes Mountains
Convergent (Oceanic-Oceanic) Compression (subduction) Older, colder, denser oceanic slab subducts beneath younger oceanic slab Deep oceanic trench, volcanic island arc , powerful megathrust earthquakes, destructive tsunamis Aleutian Islands (Alaska), Japanese Archipelago, Mariana Trench
Convergent (Continental-Continental) Compression (collision) Two buoyant continental slabs collide; neither subducts due to low density Intense crustal shortening, folding, thrust faulting, elevated non-volcanic mountain belts, crustal thickening, shallow/intermediate earthquakes The Himalayas (Indo-Australian vs. Eurasian Plate), The European Alps
Transform Shearing (sliding past) Plates slide horizontally past one another along vertical strike-slip faults Linear fault valleys, offset stream channels, sag ponds, shallow frequent earthquakes; no crust created or destroyed San Andreas Fault (Pacific vs. North American Plate), Alpine Fault (New Zealand)
- 4. Geological Hazards: Earthquakes and Volcanoes
- Earthquake Mechanics and Wave Propagation
An earthquake is the sudden release of stored elastic strain energy in rock, generated along fracture zones called faults.
Elastic Rebound Theory (Harry Fielding Reid): Tectonic forces slowly deform crustal rock elastically along a locked fault plane. Friction prevents immediate slippage until accumulated stress exceeds rock frictional strength. The rock ruptures violently, releasing stored energy as seismic waves and snapping back into an unstrained configuration.
Focus (Hypocenter) vs. Epicenter:
Focus (Hypocenter): The exact subterranean point where rock rupture and energy release initiate along the fault plane.
Epicenter: The geographic point on Earth's surface situated vertically directly above the focus.
- Seismic Wave Taxonomy ┌───────────────────────────┐
- │ SEISMIC WAVES │
- └─────────────┬─────────────┘
- │
- ┌──────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────────┐
- ▼ ▼
- ┌───────────────────────────┐ ┌───────────────────────────┐
- │ BODY WAVES │ │ SURFACE WAVES │
- │ (Propagate Through Earth) │ │ (Propagate Along Surface)│
- └─────────────┬─────────────┘ └─────────────┬─────────────┘
- │ │
- ┌────────┴────────┐ ┌────────┴────────┐
- ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼
- [P-WAVES] [S-WAVES] [LOVE WAVES] [RAYLEIGH WAVES]
- (Compressional / (Transverse / (Horizontal Side- (Elliptical Ground
- Solids & Liquids) Solids ONLY) to-Side Shear) Rolling Motion)
Body Waves (Propagate through Earth's interior):
Primary Waves (P-waves): Longitudinal/compressional waves where rock particles oscillate parallel to wave propagation direction. Fastest seismic waves ( 6 – 8 km/s 6\text{--}8\text{ km/s} 6 – 8 km/s in crust); can travel through solids, liquids, and gases .
Secondary Waves (S-waves): Transverse/shear waves where particles oscillate perpendicular (up-down or side-to-side) to wave propagation. Slower ( 3.5 – 4.5 km/s 3.5\text{--}4.5\text{ km/s} 3.5 – 4.5 km/s ); can travel ONLY through solid rock because fluids lack shear strength.
The S-Wave Shadow Zone: Seismographs located between 104 ∘ 104^\circ 10 4 ∘ and 180 ∘ 180^\circ 18 0 ∘ away from an earthquake epicenter receive zero direct S-waves. This global shadow zone provides definitive empirical proof that Earth's outer core is a liquid.
Surface Waves (Propagate along Earth's exterior):
Love Waves: Cause rapid horizontal, side-to-side ground shearing perpendicular to travel direction.
Rayleigh Waves: Generate retrograde elliptical rolling motion (similar to ocean surface waves).
Surface waves are the slowest waves, possess the largest ground displacement amplitudes, and cause the vast majority of structural collapse and surface destruction.
Earthquake Measurement Scales
Moment Magnitude Scale ( M w M_w M w ): The modern quantitative standard measuring total mechanical energy released. It is calculated from fault rupture area, average displacement slip distance, and the rock's shear modulus. Logarithmic scale: each whole-number integer increase corresponds to a ≈ 32 -fold \approx 32\text{-fold} ≈ 32 -fold increase in energy release (and a 10 -fold 10\text{-fold} 10 -fold increase in wave amplitude).
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale: A qualitative scale (Roman numerals I to XII) measuring human perception, shaking intensity, and observable structural destruction at specific geographic locations.
Secondary Hazards: Liquefaction (unconsolidated, water-saturated granular sediment loses shear strength during shaking, behaving like a viscous liquid) and Tsunamis (vertical seafloor displacement during subduction megathrust quakes propagating high-velocity ocean waves).
Magma Chemistry and Volcanic Morphologies
Volcanic eruptive behavior is governed primarily by magma viscosity and dissolved gas content , which are dictated by silica ( SiO 2 \text{SiO}_2 SiO 2 ) content and temperature:
Volcanic Type Magma Composition & SiO 2 \text{SiO}_2 SiO 2 % Temperature & Viscosity Eruptive Style & Gas Content Physical Cone Morphology Exemplar Volcanoes
Shield Volcano Basaltic / Mafic ( < 50 % SiO 2 <50\%\text{ SiO}_2 < 50% SiO 2 ) High ( 1,000 – 1,200 ∘ C 1{,}000\text{--}1{,}200^\circ\text{C} 1 , 000 – 1 , 20 0 ∘ C ); Very Low viscosity Effusive, fluid lava flows; dissolved gases escape easily Broad, gently sloping mountainous dome with low profile Mauna Loa & Kilauea (Hawaii)
Composite / Stratovolcano Andesitic / Felsic ( 55 – 70 % SiO 2 55\text{--}70\%\text{ SiO}_2 55 – 70% SiO 2 ) Moderate to Low ( 700 – 900 ∘ C 700\text{--}900^\circ\text{C} 700 – 90 0 ∘ C ); High viscosity Highly explosive; trapped gases create violent pyroclastic surges Steep, symmetrical conical peak of alternating lava & ash layers Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Shasta, Mt. Fuji
Cinder Cone (Scoria Cone) Basaltic to Andesitic (variable) Moderate; Moderate viscosity Explosive fountaining of gas-rich magma ejecting vesicular cinders Small, steep conical hill of loose scoria gravel around a vent Parícutin (Mexico), Sunset Crater (AZ)
Hotspots and Mantle Plumes: Intraplate volcanic centers generated by stationary, deep mantle plumes of upwelling thermal rock (e.g., the Hawaiian Island-Emperor Seamount chain, where the Pacific Plate's northwestward motion over a stationary hotspot created a chronologically dated island chain; Yellowstone Supervolcano under the continental North American Plate).
- 5. Mineralogy and the Rock Cycle
- The Five Criteria of a Mineral
To be classified scientifically as a mineral , a substance must satisfy five non-negotiable criteria:
Naturally Occurring: Formed by natural geological processes (synthetic gemstones are not true minerals).
Inorganic: Not composed of complex biological organic carbon molecules (coal and amber are not minerals).
Solid: Rigid state of matter at normal Earth surface temperatures (liquid water is not a mineral; glacial ice is).
Definite Chemical Composition: Expressible by a specific chemical formula (e.g., Quartz is SiO 2 \text{SiO}_2 SiO 2 , Halite is NaCl \text{NaCl} NaCl , Pyrite is FeS 2 \text{FeS}_2 FeS 2 ), though minor elemental substitution can occur.
Ordered Internal Crystalline Structure: Atoms arranged in an orderly, repeating 3-dimensional geometric lattice.
Mineral Identification Diagnostic Properties
Mohs Hardness Scale (1 to 10): Measures relative scratch resistance: 1 Talc → 2 Gypsum [Fingernail 2.5] → 3 Calcite [Copper penny 3.5] → 4 Fluorite → 5 Apatite [Glass/Steel nail 5.5] → 6 Orthoclase Feldspar [Streak plate 6.5] → 7 Quartz → 8 Topaz → 9 Corundum → 10 Diamond .
Streak: Color of a mineral's fine powder rubbed across an unglazed porcelain streak plate (e.g., metallic brassy Pyrite leaves a greenish-black streak; silver-gray Hematite leaves a diagnostic reddish-brown streak).
Luster: Quality and appearance of light reflected from the mineral surface ( Metallic vs. Non-metallic : vitreous/glassy, pearly, silky, resinous, earthy).
Cleavage vs. Fracture:
Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to break cleanly along flat, planar surfaces corresponding to planes of weak atomic bonding (e.g., basal sheet cleavage in mica, cubic cleavage in halite, rhombohedral cleavage in calcite).
Fracture: Irregular, non-planar breakage when atomic bond strength is uniform in all directions (e.g., smooth, curved conchoidal fracture in quartz and volcanic obsidian glass).
Chemical Reactivity: Calcite ( CaCO 3 \text{CaCO}_3 CaCO 3 ) effervesces vigorously (bubbles carbon dioxide gas) when exposed to dilute hydrochloric acid ( HCl \text{HCl} HCl ).
- The Three Rock Classes and Transformation Pathways ┌───────────────────────────┐
- │ MAGMA / LAVA │
- └─────────────┬─────────────┘
- │ Cooling & Crystallization
- ▼
- ┌───────────────────────────┐
- ┌────────────────────►│ IGNEOUS ROCKS │
- │ └─────────────┬─────────────┘
- │ │ Weathering, Erosion,
- │ Melting │ Deposition & Lithification
- │ ▼
- ┌───────────────────────────┐ ┌───────────────────────────┐
- │ METAMORPHIC ROCKS │◄──┤ SEDIMENTARY ROCKS │
- └───────────────────────────┘ └───────────────────────────┘
- ▲ Heat & Pressure (Metamorphism) │
- └───────────────────────────────────────────┘
Igneous Rocks (Formed from cooling magma or lava):
Intrusive (Plutonic): Magma cools slowly deep underground within plutons and batholiths. Slow cooling allows large, coarse-grained crystals to grow ( phaneritic texture ). Examples: Granite (felsic), Diorite (intermediate), Gabbro (mafic), Peridotite (ultramafic).
Extrusive (Volcanic): Lava cools rapidly at or above Earth's surface. Rapid cooling prevents large crystal growth, producing fine-grained microscopic crystals ( aphanitic texture ), quenched volcanic glass ( obsidian ), or trapped gas bubble cavities ( vesicular texture in pumice and scoria). Examples: Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite.
Sedimentary Rocks (Formed from surface deposition and lithification):
The Lithification Sequence: Weathering → \to → Erosion → \to → Transport → \to → Deposition → \to → Burial → \to → Compaction → \to → Cementation (mineral precipitation of silica, calcite, or iron oxide binding grains).
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Composed of cemented fragments of pre-existing weathered rocks, categorized by grain size: Conglomerate / Breccia (gravel-sized), Sandstone (sand-sized), Siltstone (silt-sized), Shale / Mudstone (clay-sized).
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Formed when dissolved mineral ions precipitate out of evaporating water bodies: Rock Salt (halite), Rock Gypsum, Chemical Limestone, Travertine.
Biochemical / Organic Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from compacted organic plant debris (Coal) or cemented marine shell fragments made of calcite (Fossiliferous Limestone, Coquina, Chalk).
Stratigraphic Principle: Sedimentary rocks preserve fossils and chronological strata governed by the Law of Superposition (undeformed layers are oldest at the bottom, youngest at the top).
Metamorphic Rocks (Formed from solid-state alteration under heat and pressure):
Protoliths (parent rocks) are subjected to intense heat ( > 200 ∘ C >200^\circ\text{C} > 20 0 ∘ C ), high lithostatic/differential pressure, and chemically active hydrothermal fluids without melting.
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Directed differential pressure forces platy and elongate minerals (micas, amphiboles) to align into parallel planes or compositional bands. Metamorphic Grade progression: Shale (sedimentary) → Slate (low grade) → Phyllite → Schist → Gneiss (high grade banded rock) .
Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Recrystallize under uniform confining pressure or contact metamorphism without directed shear stress, producing interlocking equidimensional crystal grains: Limestone protolith transforms into Marble ; Quartz sandstone protolith transforms into Quartzite .
6. Surface Processes: Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition
Mechanical (Physical) Weathering: The physical disintegration of rock into smaller fragments without altering chemical composition: Frost wedging (water freezes in rock joints, expanding by 9 % 9\% 9% and prying rock apart), Exfoliation / Unloading (overburden erosion relieves confining pressure, causing massive granite batholiths to fracture into curved sheets, e.g., Half Dome in Yosemite), Thermal expansion , and Biological root wedging .
Chemical Weathering: The chemical decomposition of rock minerals through reactions with water and atmospheric gases: Oxidation (reaction with dissolved oxygen, transforming iron-bearing silicates into reddish hematite rust), Carbonation and Hydrolysis (carbon dioxide dissolves in rainwater forming weak carbonic acid H 2 CO 3 \text{H}_2\text{CO}_3 H 2 CO 3 , which dissolves calcium carbonate CaCO 3 \text{CaCO}_3 CaCO 3 in limestone, sculpting karst topography , sinkholes, subterranean cavern systems, stalactites, and stalagmites).
Erosion and Transport Agents: The physical mobilization and transport of sediment by Gravity (mass wasting: landslides, rockfalls, mudflows, creep), Running Water (fluvial stream channels carving V-shaped river valleys and canyons), Wind (aeolian deflation and sand dune migration), and Glaciers (moving continental and alpine ice sheets scouring U-shaped glacial troughs , cirques, arêtes, horn peaks, and depositing unsorted glacial till and lateral/terminal moraines ).
Deposition: The settling of transported sediment when transport fluid velocity decreases, forming river deltas , alluvial fans, floodplains, and coastal barrier islands.