Study guide
2.2 First and Second Language Acquisition and ELD Instruction
California Subject Examinations for Teachers CSET
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1 Chapter 1: The CSET Program and the Multiple Subjects Examination
1.1 The CSET Program: Which Tests a California Teacher Actually Needs 1.2 CSET Multiple Subjects: Test Structure, Scoring, and Test-Day Mechanics
2 Chapter 2: Language Structure, Linguistics, and Non-Written Communication
2.1 Linguistics and Language Structure: Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics 2.2 First and Second Language Acquisition and ELD Instruction 2.3 Non-Written Communication, Listening, Speaking, and Media Analysis
3 Chapter 3: Literacy Development, Reading Comprehension, and Text Complexity
3.1 Foundations of Early Literacy: Print Concepts, Phonemic Awareness, and Phonics 3.2 Reading Fluency and Vocabulary Acquisition 3.3 Reading Comprehension of Literary and Informational Texts 3.4 Text Complexity and Matching Readers to Texts and Tasks
4 Chapter 4: Writing, Conventions, Research, and Literacy Assessment
4.1 The Writing Process, Discourse Modes, and Writing Applications 4.2 Conventions of Language: Grammar, Usage, Mechanics, and Spelling 4.3 Research Practices, Source Credibility, and Presenting Knowledge 4.4 Diagnostic Literacy Assessment, Running Records, and Miscue Analysis
5 Chapter 5: Ancient Civilizations and Medieval World History
5.1 Early River Valley Civilizations and the Foundations of Society 5.2 Classical Mediterranean Civilizations: Ancient Greece and Rome 5.3 Medieval and Early Modern Eras: Byzantium, Islam, Africa, the Americas, and the Renaissance
6 Chapter 6: United States History and Government
6.1 Indigenous North America, Colonial Settlement, and the American Revolution 6.2 Constitutional Foundations, Federalism, and the American System of Government 6.3 Westward Expansion, Sectional Conflict, the Civil War, and Reconstruction 6.4 Industrialization, the Progressive Era, World Wars, and the Civil Rights Movement
7 Chapter 7: California History and Geography
7.1 California Geography, Indigenous Nations, and the Spanish Mission Era 7.2 The Mexican Rancho Period, the Bear Flag Revolt, and the 1849 Gold Rush 7.3 California Statehood, Governance, Water Infrastructure, and Modern Economic Growth
8 Chapter 8: Social Science Skills: Geography, Civics, Economics, and Source Analysis
8.1 Chronological and Spatial Thinking: Timelines, Maps, and Geographic Tools 8.2 Core Concepts in Civics, Economics, and the Social Sciences 8.3 Analyzing Primary and Secondary Sources and Writing Historical Arguments
9 Chapter 9: Scientific Practices and Physical Science
9.1 Scientific Investigation, Engineering Design, and Crosscutting Concepts 9.2 Structure and Properties of Matter: Atoms, Elements, Compounds, and Chemical Reactions 9.3 Forces, Motion, Energy Transformations, and Waves
10 Chapter 10: Life Science and Ecology
10.1 Cell Biology, Cellular Organization, and Metabolic Processes 10.2 Genetics, Heredity, Molecular Biology, and Evolution 10.3 Ecosystems, Ecological Interactions, Energy Flow, and Biogeochemical Cycles
11 Chapter 11: Earth, Water, and Space Science
11.1 Earth's Interior, Plate Tectonics, and Geological Processes 11.2 Atmospheric Structure, Hydrology, Weather Systems, and Climate 11.3 Earth's Water: Oceans, Estuaries, Freshwater Systems, and Tidal Dynamics 11.4 Earth-Sun-Moon Dynamics, the Solar System, and the Universe
12 Chapter 12: Number Sense, Operations, and Fractions
12.1 Number Classifications, Place Value, Properties of Operations, and Integers 12.2 Number Theory, Prime Factorization, GCF/LCM, and Exponents 12.3 Fractions, Decimals, Percentages, and Proportional Problem Solving
13 Chapter 13: Algebra, Functions, and Geometry
13.1 Ratios, Rates, Proportions, and Scaling Relationships 13.2 Algebraic Expressions, Linear Equations, Systems, and Functions 13.3 Geometric Properties, Two-Dimensional Polygons, and Three-Dimensional Solids
14 Chapter 14: Coordinate Geometry, Measurement, Statistics, and Mathematical Practices
14.1 Coordinate Geometry, Linear Graphs, and Geometric Transformations 14.2 Measurement Systems, Dimensional Analysis, and Precision 14.3 Descriptive Statistics, Data Displays, and Probability Theory 14.4 Mathematical Practices: Reasoning, Modeling, Estimation, and Justification
15 Chapter 15: Physical Education: Movement, Fitness, Social Development, and Inclusion
15.1 Motor Development, Fundamental Movement Skills, and Movement Concepts 15.2 Fitness Principles, Exercise Physiology, Nutrition, and Safety 15.3 Self-Image, Social Development, and Personal and Social Responsibility 15.4 Movement Forms, Cultural Traditions, and Inclusive Adapted Physical Education
16 Chapter 16: Human Development: Cognition, Intelligence, Social and Physical Growth
16.1 Cognitive and Linguistic Development: Piaget, Vygotsky, and Information Processing 16.2 Perspectives on Intelligence, Play, and Individual Differences 16.3 Social-Emotional and Moral Development: Erikson, Kohlberg, and Attachment Theory 16.4 Physical Development, Ecological Systems, and Mandated Reporting
17 Chapter 17: Visual and Performing Arts: Dance, Music, and Theatre
17.1 Fundamental Elements of Dance, Choreographic Principles, and Cultural Styles 17.2 Core Elements of Music, Staff Notation, Rhythm, and Auditory Analysis 17.3 Music History, World Traditions, and Elementary Music Pedagogy 17.4 Elements of Theatre, Dramatic Structures, Acting Techniques, and Stagecraft
18 Chapter 18: Visual Art, Arts Integration, and Constructed-Response Mastery
18.1 Elements of Art, Principles of Design, and Visual Analysis 18.2 Art Media, Techniques, World Art History, and Art Criticism 18.3 California Arts Standards and Cross-Curricular Arts Integration 18.4 CSET Constructed-Response Strategy, Scoring Scale, and Domain-Specific Exemplars
2.2 First and Second Language Acquisition and ELD Instruction
Key Takeaways Explain This Topic AI
First language acquisition progresses through universal developmental milestones: pre-linguistic (cooing/babbling), holophrastic (one-word), telegraphic (two-word pivot grammar), and multi-word expansion characterized by rule-governed overregularization.
Major language acquisition theories contrast Skinner's Behaviorism (stimulus-response conditioning), Chomsky's Innatism (Universal Grammar and the Language Acquisition Device), and Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory (Zone of Proximal Development and peer scaffolding).
Stephen Krashen's Second Language Acquisition framework establishes five key hypotheses: Acquisition vs. Learning, Comprehensible Input (i+1), the Affective Filter, the Natural Order, and the Monitor.
California English Language Development (ELD) Standards define three progressive proficiency tiers—Emerging, Expanding, and Bridging—delivered through both Integrated ELD (across all content areas) and Designated ELD (dedicated language instruction).
Jim Cummins' Dual-Iceberg Model illustrates Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) and separates Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS, acquired in 1–2 years) from Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP, requiring 5–7 years of rigorous development).
Last updated: August 2026
2.2 First and Second Language Acquisition and ELD Instruction
CSET Focus: California classrooms represent exceptional linguistic diversity. The CSET Multiple Subjects examination expects educators to understand how children acquire their first language (L1), how second language acquisition (L2) mirrors and diverges from L1, and how to implement the California English Language Development (ELD) Standards using research-grounded pedagogical scaffolding.
1. Developmental Stages of First Language Acquisition (L1)
All typically developing children across cultures progress through an invariant sequence of language milestones, demonstrating that language acquisition is biologically supported and developmentally constrained:
1. Pre-Linguistic Stage (Birth to ~12 Months)
Cooing (0–6 Months): Production of open vowel-like sounds ( "ooo" , "aaa" ), expressing comfort, responsiveness, and vocal play.
Babbling (6–12 Months):
Canonical / Reduplicated Babbling (6–9 months): Repeated consonant-vowel combinations ( "ba-ba-ba" , "ma-ma-ma" ).
Variegated / Non-Reduplicated Babbling (9–12 months): Diverse consonant and vowel combinations with adult-like intonation contours ( "ba-da-ma-bu" ). Babbling reflects the phonological inventory of the infant's ambient language environment.
2. Holophrastic / One-Word Stage (~12 to 18 Months)
Children produce single-word utterances ( holophrases ) that represent complete thoughts, desires, or complex situational meanings. For instance, uttering "Milk!" may signify "I spilled my milk," "I want milk," or "Look, that is a milk carton."
Lexical Phenomenon:
Overextension: Applying a specific word to an overly broad category of items sharing perceptual features (e.g., calling all four-legged animals "doggie" ).
Underextension: Using a general word to refer strictly to a single specific instance (e.g., believing only the family's Golden Retriever is a "dog" , while neighbor dogs are not).
3. Telegraphic / Two-Word Stage (~18 to 24 Months)
Children combine two words to express core semantic relationships ( pivot grammar ), omitting grammatical function words and bound morphemes (articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs):
- Agent + Action: "Doggie bark"
- Action + Object: "Drink juice"
- Possessor + Possessed: "Daddy shoe"
- Attributive: "Big ball"
- Recurrence: "More cookie"
Speech resembles telegrams because it relies almost exclusively on high-value content words (nouns and verbs).
4. Multi-Word & Complex Grammar Stage (24+ Months)
Sentences expand from three-word utterances into complex clause structures with conjunctions and embedded phrases.
Overregularization / Overgeneralization: Between ages 3 and 5, children apply newly acquired regular grammatical rules to irregular words (e.g., "The cat runned away," "I have two foots," "We saw three deers" ).
Linguistic Significance: Overregularization is critical diagnostic proof that children do not acquire language through rote imitation alone; rather, they internalize underlying abstract grammatical rules and apply them generatively.
2. Major Theoretical Frameworks in Language Acquisition
Theorist Paradigm / School Core Hypothesis Mechanism of Acquisition Key Terminology
B.F. Skinner Behaviorism Language is an operant behavior acquired via external environmental stimuli Stimulus-response conditioning, imitation, selective reinforcement, and habit formation Operant conditioning, Shaping, Reinforcement schedules
Noam Chomsky Innatism / Nativism Language capacity is biologically hardwired into the human brain at birth The biological LAD processes input and activates Universal Grammar (UG) Language Acquisition Device (LAD), Universal Grammar, Poverty of the Stimulus
Lev Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory Language develops through dynamic social interaction and cultural mediation Collaborative dialogue within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) with a More Knowledgeable Other ZPD, Scaffolding, Private Speech, Inner Speech
Stephen Krashen Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Acquisition occurs subconsciously when receiving comprehensible input in a low-anxiety state Input hypothesis ( i + 1 i+1 i + 1 ) filtered by emotional/affective conditions Comprehensible Input, Affective Filter, Acquisition vs. Learning
Detailed Theoretical Perspectives
Chomsky's Innatist Argument: Chomsky famously highlighted the Poverty of the Stimulus —children are exposed to incomplete, fragmented, and error-filled adult speech, yet effortlessly master complex grammatical structures that were never explicitly taught. This proves the existence of an innate mental module ( Language Acquisition Device ) programmed with universal grammatical principles.
Vygotsky's Social Constructivism: Language begins as a social communication tool ( social speech ), transforms into self-directed problem-solving speech ( private speech in toddlers), and eventually internalizes as silent thought ( inner speech ). Learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) —the gap between what a child can achieve independently and what they can achieve with instructional scaffolding.
3. Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Krashen's SLA model provides the theoretical backbone for modern English Language Development (ELD) instruction. It consists of five interrelated hypotheses: [Language Input] ──> [Affective Filter (Anxiety/Motivation)] ──> [Language Acquisition Device] ──> [Acquired Competence]
- │
- [Conscious Monitor / Learned Rules] ───────────────┘
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:
Acquisition is a subconscious, natural process identical to how children acquire L1 through authentic communication. It leads to spontaneous fluency.
Learning is the conscious, formal study of grammar rules, verb tables, and explicit syntax. Krashen argues that learning cannot automatically convert into acquisition .
The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis ( i + 1 i+1 i + 1 ):
Learners acquire language only when they receive messages they understand that are pitched just one step beyond their current developmental competence ( i + 1 i+1 i + 1 ).
Teachers make input comprehensible using visual realia, gestures, graphic organizers, modeling, and contextual cues without dumbing down academic concepts.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis:
The Affective Filter is an emotional barrier that can prevent comprehensible input from reaching the language acquisition centers of the brain.
High Filter (Barrier Raised): High anxiety, fear of making errors, low self-esteem, hostile classroom environment → language acquisition is blocked.
Low Filter (Barrier Lowered): Safe, welcoming classroom, low stress, risk-taking encouraged, high motivation → input penetrates and promotes acquisition.
The Natural Order Hypothesis:
Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable, universal order regardless of the order in which they are explicitly taught in a curriculum (e.g., progressive -ing and plural -s are acquired before the third-person singular -s ).
The Monitor Hypothesis:
Consciously learned grammar rules function only as an internal "monitor" or editor that checks and corrects output generated by the acquired system.
The monitor operates only when three conditions are met: (a) the speaker has sufficient processing time, (b) the speaker is consciously focused on grammatical form, and (c) the speaker explicitly knows the rule.
4. California ELD Standards Framework & Proficiency Levels
The California Department of Education organizes English language development along three structured proficiency levels, moving from assisted participation to full academic autonomy:
ELD Proficiency Tier Linguistic Characteristics & Receptive Abilities Expressive Output & Grammar Capabilities Required Instructional Scaffolding
Emerging Understands basic social English and contextualized vocabulary; relies heavily on gestures and visual cues Communicates basic immediate needs using single words, short memorized phrases, and formulaic expressions Substantial Scaffolding: Realia, native-language support, sentence frames, graphic organizers, physical demonstrations
Expanding Comprehends detailed academic concepts with moderate support; expanding Tier 2 vocabulary across domains Produces complete sentences, connects ideas with basic conjunctions ( because, but, so ), requests clarification Moderate Scaffolding: Sentence starters, structured peer dialogue, paragraph frames, vocabulary banks
Bridging Comprehends complex, nuanced academic texts across all core subjects with minimal support Expresses complex ideas with varied syntax, academic discourse markers, and precision comparable to native peers Light Scaffolding: Occasional glossaries, advanced rubrics, peer editing protocols, targeted academic feedback
Integrated ELD vs. Designated ELD in California Schools
California state policy mandates a dual-pronged instructional delivery model for all designated English Learners (ELs):
Integrated ELD: ELD standards are taught throughout the entire instructional day across all academic disciplines (Math, Science, Social Studies, English Language Arts). Subject-matter teachers embed linguistic scaffolds into core content lessons so ELs access grade-level standards.
Designated ELD: A protected, dedicated block of daily instructional time where qualified educators teach English language structures directly, calibrated to the students' specific ELD proficiency level (Emerging, Expanding, or Bridging), using the ELD standards as the primary driver.
- 5. Cross-Linguistic Transfer and Jim Cummins' Framework
- Cummins' Dual-Iceberg Model and Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)
Professor Jim Cummins established that a student's first language (L1) and second language (L2) do not operate in isolated mental compartments. Instead, they share a Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) : [Surface L1 Features] [Surface L2 Features]
- (Pronunciation, Orthography) (Pronunciation, Orthography)
- \ /
- \ /
- ===================\==============================/==================== [Water Level]
- \ /
- [ COMMON UNDERLYING ]
- [ PROFICIENCY (CUP) ]
- [ • Literacy Concepts ]
- [ • Metacognitive Skills ]
- [ • Academic Reasoning ]
Concepts learned in L1 (such as cause-and-effect, reading from left-to-right, mathematical problem-solving, or scientific inquiry) transfer directly to L2 without needing to be re-taught.
BICS vs. CALP
Cummins distinguished between two fundamental registers of language proficiency:
BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills):
Social, conversational, playground fluency.
Highly context-embedded (rich in facial expressions, gestures, and immediate situational feedback).
Takes 1 to 2 years of immersion to develop.
CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency):
Formal, abstract, grade-level academic language required for standardized testing, synthesizing informational texts, and writing research reports.
Highly context-reduced (abstract ideas with minimal non-verbal cues).
Takes 5 to 7 years (and up to 7–10 years without formal L1 schooling) to develop.
CSET Diagnostic Trap: A student who speaks English fluently and playfully on the school playground with peers (high BICS) may still struggle intensely when reading a 5th-grade science textbook on cellular mitosis (developing CALP). Teachers must not mistake conversational fluency for academic mastery.
Language Transfer Dynamics
Positive Transfer: Similarities between L1 and L2 accelerate acquisition (e.g., using cognates like organism / organismo , hypothesis / hipótesis , or shared alphabetic print concepts).
Negative Transfer (Language Interference): Differences between L1 and L2 create syntactic or phonological errors (e.g., a native Spanish speaker saying "The car red" because Spanish places adjectives after nouns [ el carro rojo ], or struggling to perceive the distinction between English /b/ and /v/ ).
Code-Switching: Alternating systematically between two languages or dialects within a single conversation. Code-switching is a sign of high cognitive-linguistic flexibility, not linguistic confusion.