3.5 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Tornadoes, and Tropical Dispatch Hazards

FAA Aircraft Dispatcher Certificate ADX

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1 Chapter 1: Regulations, Certification & Operational Control

1.1 Part 65 Subpart C: Certification, Eligibility & Currency 1.2 Operational Control & Dispatcher-PIC Joint Responsibility 1.3 Domestic, Flag & Supplemental Operations Framework 1.4 Dispatch Release Elements, Signatures & Recordkeeping 1.5 Regulations, Manuals, Crew Qualifications, and Source Control

2 Chapter 2: Atmospheric Physics, Pressure Systems & Fronts

2.1 Atmospheric Structure, Standard Atmosphere & Altimetry 2.2 Air Masses, Frontal Systems & Frontogenesis 2.3 Atmospheric Stability, Lapse Rates & Cloud Formation 2.4 Earth Motion, Regional Weather, Local Winds, and Water Phase Changes

3 Chapter 3: Aviation Weather Hazards & Severe Weather Avoidance

3.1 Structural and Induction Icing: Types, Accretion & Operations 3.2 Thunderstorms, Squall Lines, Microbursts & Low-Level Windshear 3.3 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT), Mountain Waves & Jet Streams 3.4 Low Ceilings, Fog Types & Visibility Restrictions 3.5 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Tornadoes, and Tropical Dispatch Hazards

4 Chapter 4: Weather Observations, Forecasts & Advisories Decoding

4.1 METAR and SPECI Surface Observations: Decoding & Operations 4.2 Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF): Groups & Timing 4.3 Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP): Coding, Severity & Urgent Alerts 4.4 In-Flight Advisories: AIRMETs, SIGMETs & Convective SIGMETs 4.5 Weather Collection, NWS Facilities, GFA, and EWINS

5 Chapter 5: Aviation Weather Charts & Upper-Air Analysis

5.1 Surface Analysis & Radar Summary Charts 5.2 Constant Pressure Analysis & Winds Aloft (FB) 5.3 Significant Weather Prognostic Charts (SIGWX) 5.4 Satellite Imagery, Moisture-Stability Analysis, and Forecast Integration

6 Chapter 6: Air Navigation, Airspace Architecture & Route Structure

6.1 National Airspace System: Classes, Rules & Special Use 6.2 Ground-Based Navigation Aids & Standard Service Volumes 6.3 Area Navigation (RNAV), GNSS/GPS, PBN & RNP Fundamentals 6.4 En Route Airways, SIDs, STARs & Chart Interpretation 6.5 Earth Coordinates, UTC, Chart Projections, and Flight Instruments 6.6 North Atlantic, Pacific, RVSM, and Global Navigation Differences

7 Chapter 7: Instrument Approaches, Minimums & Airport Operations

7.1 Precision Approach Systems: ILS Categories & Tolerances 7.2 Non-Precision Approaches, RNAV & Decision Minimums (MDA/DA) 7.3 Takeoff Minimums, Lower-Than-Standard & Takeoff Alternates 7.4 Holding Procedures: Patterns, Speed Limits & Timing

8 Chapter 8: Subsonic Aerodynamics & Jet Aircraft Performance

8.1 Subsonic Jet Aerodynamics: Lift, Drag & Flight Regimes 8.2 High-Altitude Flight: Mach Number, Buffet & Coffin Corner 8.3 Transport Turbine Engines: Thrust, Specific Fuel & Bleed Air

9 Chapter 9: Transport Category Takeoff & Landing Runway Analysis

9.1 Takeoff Performance Speeds & Balanced Field Concept 9.2 Takeoff Climb Segments & Obstacle Clearance Gradients 9.3 Landing Performance: Field Lengths, 60% Rule & Contamination

10 Chapter 10: En Route Performance, Driftdown Profiles & ETOPS Operations

10.1 One/Two-Engine-Inoperative En Route Net Profiles & Driftdown 10.2 Extended-Range Operations (ETOPS): Philosophy & Regulations 10.3 ETOPS En Route Alternates: Adequate vs. Suitable & Critical Fuel

11 Chapter 11: Aircraft Weight & Balance, Center of Gravity, and Loading

11.1 Transport Aircraft Structural Weight Limits: Definitions & Rules 11.2 Center of Gravity Computations: Datum, Arm, Moment & Index 11.3 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (%MAC) Computations & Stability 11.4 Payload-Range Analysis, Zero Fuel Weight Tradeoffs & Loading

12 Chapter 12: Destination Alternate Airport Selection & Weather Rules

12.1 Destination Alternate Selection: 91.169 & Part 121 1-2-3 Rule 12.2 Flag & Supplemental Operations Destination Alternate Rules 12.3 Derived Alternate Minimums: 1-Nav and 2-Nav Facility Rules

13 Chapter 13: Part 121 Fuel Planning, Reserves & En Route Re-Release

13.1 Part 121 Domestic Fuel Requirements: Reserves & Calculations 13.2 Part 121 Flag Fuel Requirements: 10% Reserve & Island Rules 13.3 Supplemental Fuel Requirements & Holding Fuel Management 13.4 Redispatch and En Route Re-release Procedures

14 Chapter 14: Transport Systems, Pressurization & MEL/CDL Procedures

14.1 Transport Jet Auxiliary Power, Electrical, Hydraulic & Pneumatic Systems 14.2 Cabin Pressurization, Rapid Decompression & Oxygen Requirements 14.3 Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL), MEL & CDL Procedures 14.4 Flight Controls, Autoflight, Fuel, Oil, Brakes, and Fire Protection

15 Chapter 15: Hazardous Materials, Duty Regulations & Emergency Procedures

15.1 Dangerous Goods Carriage by Air (49 CFR Part 175) & NOTOC 15.2 Dispatcher Duty Limitations, Rest Requirements & Fatigue 15.3 Emergency Authority, Declaration & Diversion Decision-Making 15.4 NTSB Part 830 Accident Reporting & Wreckage Preservation 15.5 Security, Overdue Aircraft, and FAA Emergency Services

16 Chapter 16: Communications, ATC, and Flight Plan Procedures

16.1 Voice, Data Link, Position Reports, and Lost Communications 16.2 ATC Facilities, Separation, ICAO Flight Plans, and Traffic Management

17 Chapter 17: Human Factors and Practical Dispatch Applications

17.1 Dispatch Resource Management, Human Error, and Risk Decisions 17.2 Manual Flight Planning, PIC Briefing, Flight Watch, and Postflight Closeout

3.5 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Tornadoes, and Tropical Dispatch Hazards

Key Takeaways Explain This Topic AI

Hurricanes and typhoons are basin-specific names for strong tropical cyclones.

Calm conditions in an eye or between rainbands do not establish a safe operating window.

Wind category does not measure all rainfall, flooding, storm-surge, or airport-service hazards.

Funnel clouds, tornadoes, and waterspouts are urgent PIREP phenomena.

Last updated: October 2026

Tropical and Rotating Storm Hazards

The official syllabus explicitly includes tornadoes, hurricanes, and typhoons , including formation and dissipation. A hurricane or typhoon is a tropical cyclone named by basin; the hazards are not limited to the storm's highest surface-wind category. Dispatchers consider the full route and diversion network, including flooding, airport closure, navigation and communications outages, wind, convection, and airport emergency services.

Formation and structure

A tropical cyclone draws energy from warm ocean water and moist convection, with a sufficiently organized circulation and favorable atmospheric conditions. Adequate Coriolis effect, moisture, and limited disruptive vertical shear support development; no single water-temperature observation guarantees formation. Land interaction, colder water, dry air, or increased shear can weaken a storm, but the remnants may still produce heavy rain, low ceilings, gusts, and embedded thunderstorms.

The eye can have comparatively calm conditions while the surrounding eyewall contains intense convection and strong winds. Spiral rainbands extend outside the core and can contain thunderstorms, severe turbulence, heavy rain, wind shear, and tornadoes. A brief observation improvement near the eye or between bands does not establish a safe departure/arrival period. The weather can change rapidly with the next band or eyewall passage.

In the Atlantic and eastern North Pacific, a sufficiently strong tropical cyclone is called a hurricane; in the western North Pacific it is called a typhoon. Use the responsible official forecast center and local meteorological products. Do not apply an Atlantic product's terminology, times, or warning geography to every basin without checking the regional definitions.

Wind category is only one input

The Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale describes maximum sustained wind, not all rainfall, storm-surge, or airport hazards. A weakening storm can continue to flood an airport or destroy ground infrastructure. Gusts and convective outflow can exceed the operational crosswind capability for a particular runway even when an average reported wind seems acceptable.

For runway selection, calculate the forecast wind components for the relevant operating time, include the carrier's approved gust treatment, and check the actual aircraft/contamination limits. The demonstrated crosswind figure is not universally a certified operational limit; use the approved applicable limit. A runway aligned with the prevailing cyclone wind may become unsuitable as the circulation moves past the airport.

Dispatch assessment across the network

• Planning area Specific check
• Departure Ground wind, ramp access, deicing where relevant, runway condition, and takeoff performance
• Enroute Embedded convection, turbulence, ash if separately present, escape routes, and communications
• Destination TAF periods, wind/runway compatibility, approaches, field reports, and closure NOTAMs
• Alternates Independent exposure to rainbands, operational hours, services, and forecast window
• Post-landing Airport access, rescue capability, aircraft security, and onward operational constraints

A destination and nearby alternate can both lie under the same broad rainband field. Picking an alternate merely outside the center track forecast may not provide adequate protection. Examine uncertainty in storm position and timing, and select a reachable airport whose weather and field conditions satisfy its actual planning minima and operational requirements.

Official forecasts and advisories

Use National Hurricane Center products in its area, applicable tropical-cyclone advisories, SIGMETs, and the local airport forecasts/observations. Track issue times and forecast periods. A track forecast describes the expected center movement with uncertainty; it does not identify an approved aviation corridor through the surrounding convection.

Satellite imagery can reveal circulation and cloud extent, but brightness alone does not quantify flight-level turbulence or safe distances. Radar has range and attenuation limitations, and data-link images are delayed. Combine the official products with observations and PIREPs rather than using a screen capture as a tactical storm-penetration plan. Coordinate strategic rerouting and expected ATC capacity restrictions before departure.

Tornadoes and supercell hazards

A tornado is a violently rotating column associated with a convective cloud and the ground. Funnel clouds and waterspouts are also urgent PIREP phenomena. A storm can be hazardous long before a tornado is observed: severe turbulence, hail, downdrafts, lightning, and rapidly shifting wind remain threats. A tornado warning is not the only information needed to avoid a severe thunderstorm.

Tornadoes can occur with supercells, convective lines, or tropical rainbands. The dispatcher must not infer that a tropical cyclone produces only smooth stratiform rain. Airborne crews avoid hazardous convection using appropriate current information and approved procedures; dispatch provides alternative routes, fuel/performance analysis, and timely updates. Do not wait for an aircraft-specific PIREP of a tornado before acting on a credible forecast or warning affecting the flight.

Worked delay and alternate scenario

A fictional destination has a cyclone rainband expected from 1800Z to 2200Z, including strong gusts, reduced visibility, and potential runway flooding. Flight ETA is 1930Z. The nearest alternate also lies in the band's expected movement, while a more distant airport is forecast to remain operational and meet planning minima. First verify destination authorization at ETA and whether any conditional-weather relief actually applies. Next compute fuel and performance for the reachable alternate and expected ATC delay, using the correct operating-category rule.

If postponing departure moves ETA outside the currently adverse period, obtain the updated forecast and field information rather than assuming the original forecast guarantees recovery. A closure NOTAM or unavailable rescue service may remain after weather improves. Rebrief the crew on storm motion, route changes, alternates, fuel limits, and the next reassessment point.

Finally, assess dissipation realistically. A cyclone crossing land may weaken in wind while continuing to generate widespread IFR conditions and embedded convection. Reopening a route or airport requires current evidence of suitable conditions and operational services. The practical-test answer should explain the hazard, the source and time window, the available alternatives, and why the selected operation remains safe and authorized.

Official References

Source check: 2026-10-12 . 2026 FAA Aviation Weather Handbook ; Icing operations § 121.629 . For operational use, apply current issued authorizations and the assigned aircraft’s approved data.